Lecturas | El espectacular mundo villero: las crónicas literarias argentinas del presente - Por Regina Cellino

Los sectores sociales marginados, aturdidos por la exclusión social que contamina la vida de los millones que intentan salir adelante, reúnen un sinfín de historias que sintetizan los distintos matices socioculturales que atraviesan los habitantes de aquellos lugares. Nuestra compañera se animó y nos mandó este análisis. Pasen a ver.


Las villas, los suburbios, el piquetero, el puntero político, el cura villero y el pibe chorro: constituyen temáticas que han invadido (o han sido invadidas) durante las últimas décadas el imaginario literario y cinematográfico no sólo argentino sino latinoamericano. Ejemplo de ello lo componen películas como Cidade de Deus (2002) de Fernando Meireilles y Elefante blanco (2012) de Pablo Trapero, ambas inscriptas en los que se denomina el cine global de la miseria. Pero en Argentina, especialmente a partir de la crisis del 2001, las villas adquieren un tipo de visibilidad no sólo urbana y social sino literaria que se manifiesta en la multiplicidad de textualidades que la narran y de imágenes que las recogen.

En cuanto a la problemática de la villa –como lugar otro- es preciso señalar que la misma no es nueva en la literatura argentina. Hitos clásicos de esa serie lo constituyen la novela Villa miseria es también América (1954) de Bernardo Verbitsky que describe al pobre urbano y su forma de vida, a la vez que plantea una reflexión del autor en relación a la “necesidad” de integración social de estos marginales a través del trabajo.

La vida en la villa aquí aparece ligada a la construcción de la noción de comunidad. Posteriormente, Intemperie (1973) de Roger Pla narra la marginalidad social, pero dando una vuelta de tuerca a la representación realista de la pobreza que se había hecho desde la tradición novelística argentina (Art; Castelnuovo), ya que las imágenes de la villa que presenta aparecen plasmadas en una estructura que superpone mímesis con técnicas experimentales, como el collage.

A partir de la década del ´90, la villa es objeto de un nuevo modo de representación en el marco de la implementación del neoliberalismo. Si bien los asentamientos precarios o barrios de emergencia han sido constantes en Buenos Aires desde la década del ´30 (con la llegada de inmigrantes y de pobladores que emigraron del interior del país a la capital), en la década del ´90, la villa se transformó, según lo demuestran estudios de sociólogos, de un asentamiento transitorio en un lugar permanente (Saraví, 2006; Gorelik, 2013). La expansión de este fenómeno “villero” puede encontrar su correlato en la expansión de la presencia del tema en distintas novelas como, entre otras, El aire (1992) de Sergio Chefjec, Vivir afuera (1998) de Rodolfo Fogwill, La villa (2001) de César Aira, Puerto Apache (2002) de Juan Martini, novelas que, según Silvia Saítta, “inauguran modos de representación alejados de los procedimientos realistas pero que aún así dan cuenta de la sociedad en la que se inscriben” (2006: 2). Más cerca en el tiempo, La Virgen Cabeza (2009), de Gabriela Cabezón Cámara logra crear un lenguaje nuevo para aquello que la misma novela nombra, «una forma de realismo villero» (56). Ésta constituye un texto clave dentro de la serie literaria ya que si bien responde a las reglas genéricas de la novela, en su construcción interna, la autora juega con los límites y los híbridos, rasgos propios de la crónica literaria. En la novela, la villa aparece como un espacio amurallado en el que se mezclan la tragedia, la comedia, las fiestas, la religión y el mundo del espectáculo. El hecho de que una de las voces narradoras sea la de la periodista de policiales “en busca de una historia para un premio de crónicas” es el marco fundamental para entender la tensión entre crónica y ficción en este texto. A su vez, también, la novela Oscura monótona sangre (2009) de Sergio Olguín interesa por el modo en que despliega la mirada del protagonista, sujeto de clase media, en el “paseo” que realiza desde la zona Norte de Buenos Aires hasta la Villa 21, al tiempo que esa “intervención” permite visualizar la corrupción y violencia política de la ciudad.

El espectacular mundo villero: las crónicas literarias argentinas del presente

Por su parte, el cine argentino se ocupó, también, de representar la villa y los sujetos que forman parte de ella desde los años 50: así, las clásicas El secuestrador (1958), de Leopoldo Torre Nilson, El candidato (1959) de Fernando Ayala y Detrás de un largo muro (1958) de Lucas Demare, Tiré die (1960) de Fernando Birri y Crónica de un niño solo (1965) de Leonardo Favio. La producción cinematográfica posterior al 2001 no dejó de registrar los efectos de la crisis argentina, en especial la visibilidad de un fenómeno como las villas que, como señalé más arriba, dejó de ser transitorio para pasar a ser permanente dentro de las configuraciones urbanas. Como plantea Gonzalo Aguilar (2013):

Pese a que el ocultamiento de la villa miseria es una marca de la cultura porteña, el cine argentino se preocupó por darle visibilidad y este rasgo de antagonismo en relación al imaginario urbano dominante no es nuevo; es más, surge en el mismo momento en que el Estado, las ciencias sociales y la literatura las reconocen como fenómeno urbano y las dotan de una fisonomía propia (…) La oposición entre visibilidad y ocultamiento se mantiene durante mucho tiempo(…) Sin embargo, esta lógica comenzó a resquebrajarse a partir del retorno de la democracia para, menos de una década después, debilitarse en una sociedad en la que todo es espectacularizado, incluidas, por supuesto, las villas. A partir de 2001, la cuestión no pasa por mostrar o no mostrar sino por cómo hacerlo. (2-3).
Dentro del conjunto cinematográfico entonces, se encuentran, por un lado, los documentales entre los que pueden mencionarse: Bonanza en vías de extinción (2011) de Ulises Rosell, Cartoneros (2009) de Ernesto Livon-Grosman, Estrellas (2007) de Marcos León y Federico Martinez, El Rostro de la Dignidad, memoria del M.T.D. de Solano (grupo Alavío, 2001), Piqueteros… Un fantasma recorre la Argentina (Ojo Obrero, 2001), Argentinazo, comienza la revolución (Ojo Obrero, 2002), entre muchos otros. Por otro, las grandes producciones cinematográficas que se integran al cine global de la miseria: así, Villa (2013) de Hernán Moyano o Elefante blanco (2012) de Pablo Trapero.

Ahora bien, en Argentina, con los hechos ocurridos especialmente el 19 y 20 de diciembre del 2001, la villa – como espacio social diferente pero cercano- y los “villeros” se multiplicaron – no sólo en número -sino en imágenes televisivas, en hechos periodísticos y sucesos literarios. En su mayoría, la espectacularización de los hechos trágicos, específicamente la televisación reiterada de los saqueos de aquel diciembre, ha estado en sintonía con la doxa de la clase media y media-alta: los pobres son delincuentes y criminales. Por lo tanto, desde el 2001 en adelante hay una abundancia de imágenes espectaculares sobre la villa, ya sea provenientes de los medios así como de novelas, y este hecho me provoca preguntas tales como ¿cómo narrarla hoy, desde la literatura, sin caer en la construcción de un relato totalizador del fenómeno? , O ¿cómo contar sin convertir a la literatura en un simple comentario de la serie política e institucional del país? Si bien es cierto que la realidad social, política y económica participa como coyuntura en las producciones literarias de una época, esa referencia no debiera restringir las posibilidades de la literatura. En este sentido, un primer acercamiento para responder a esos interrogantes nos lo brinda Mónica Bernabé en el “Prólogo” al libro Idea crónica.

Podemos afirmar que en las últimas décadas se hizo evidente la emergencia de una serie textual que manifiesta un notorio impulso hacia el realismo. Son narrativas urgidas por relatar y transferir algo de lo real en esforzada batalla contra la opacidad irreductible del lenguaje. (Subrayado mío, 8)

(…) A principios del siglo XXI, más que por contar historias, los mejores cronistas son aquellos que se empeñan en encontrar una voz en confluencia con una mirada como estrategia de percepción de un mundo cada vez más complejo (11)

Entonces, adscribiendo a los postulados anteriores, considero que uno de los modos de narrar la villa sería a través de la crónica literaria contemporánea ya que constituye un “molde discursivo”, más que un género definido y preestablecido, atravesado por muchas disciplinas y mediatizado por los medios de comunicación. El cronista, si bien es un sujeto letrado, participa con su cuerpo en el suceso que narra y media entre la voz de los individuos que forman parte de su recorrido experimental y el lector, pero sin conformar una traducción de la voz de esos otros. Aunque se plantea en este aspecto un interrogante ético vinculado con la distancia entre el cronista y los sujetos representados, ya que el escritor es un sujeto intelectual (pese a que en las crónicas aparezca el registro de las voces de los Otros) mientras que los representados son “marginales”. Es decir, hay una voluntad por parte del cronista de hacer visible y enunciable al lector o espectador, en el caso del cine, algo que no era visto o era visto de un solo modo. A su vez, estas producciones circulan en un mercado editorial y cinematográfico ajeno al de los sujetos representados.

Como decía anteriormente, las crónicas contemporáneas están atravesadas –mediatizadas- por la lógica espectacular de los medios de información. Por eso me resultan interesantes en cuanto a la vinculación entre crónica y villa, las dos de Cristian Alarcón: Cuando me muero quiero que me toquen cumbia (2003) y Si me querés, quereme transa (2010). Ambas crónicas literarias utilizan la misma lógica espectacular del periodismo –en todos sus formatos – para desde allí transformarla y crear un discurso que puede leerse en paralelo – y en tensión – con los demás discursos de los medios de información. Alarcón penetra en las villas para rescatar historias y tramas que aparecen silenciadas –o contadas de otra manera- por los medios masivos de comunicación y su experiencia se deposita en la escritura de una forma textual que se haya en los márgenes de la literatura. El cronista articula una nueva mirada y una nueva puesta en escena de la configuración de la villa a través de la lógica del espectáculo, concepto que introducido por Guy Debord (1967) como la “relación social entre personas, mediatizadas a través de imágenes, que a veces pretende pasar como no mediatizada” y que “somete a las personas a una economía de la mirada y del mirar” (42), es actualizado por Jesús Martín Barbero en Oficio de Cartógrafo (2002). Dice Barbero:

El espectáculo no lo definen, no lo configuran sus contenidos sino esa voluntad recíproca de ver que es la voluntad de dramatización, necesidad de representación que forma parte de la sustancia misma de lo social: la teatralización constante de la vida colectiva. (…) El espectáculo no es mero resultado sino la forma del discurso de la televisión: la equivalencia en imágenes de la historia del mundo (…)” (97).

En las dos crónicas citadas anteriormente se puede observar la construcción de imágenes espectaculares en relación a la villa, es decir, las imágenes se configuran a partir de la tragicidad (muertes, pasiones, traiciones), el dramatismo y el melodrama (Barbero, 2002). Sin embargo, esta espectacularización no ha sido una construcción propia del ámbito literario sino que se relaciona directamente con el contexto social, político y económico de Argentina a partir del 2001 en adelante. En este sentido, las crónicas analizadas coexisten con la sobreabundancia de imágenes sobre la villa provenientes de los medios de comunicación, especialmente de diarios y programas televisivos, como del lenguaje cinematográfico. A su vez, las imágenes espectaculares que se establecen en el interior de las obras permiten reflexionar sobre el estatuto de lo real, porque se instaura una ambigüedad, relacionada con la tensión formal entre ficción y “realidad” del género y porque se remite a espacios y sucesos reales reconstruidos tanto por la mirada y escritura de un sujeto, como por la ficcionalización que ha adquirido la propia realidad, anclada en la profusión de imágenes espectaculares de la villa como de la violencia que se establece en ellas. La construcción de estas imágenes dentro las crónicas ponen en suspenso las categorías de ficción y no ficción, debido a que las fronteras entre el ámbito de lo real y al ámbito de la ficción se vuelven
porosas.

Los pibes chorros

Cristian Alarcón trabajaba en el periódico Página 12 en la sección Policiales e investigaba sobre los escuadrones de la muerte de la ciudad de Buenos Aires. Pero el suceso que en la villa San Fernando había nacido un ídolo pagano lo sacó del recinto de la prensa y lo llevó a la investigación y a la escritura de la crónica del nacimiento del “Santo de los pibes chorros”, a partir no sólo de entrevistas y conversaciones con testigos sino a través de la inserción de su propio cuerpo dentro de la villa. El mito del Frente Vital, un pibe chorro que había sido fusilado por la policía, fue el permiso de entrada de Alarcón a la villa:

Pero me vi un día intentando torpemente respetar el ritmo bascular de los chicos ladrones de San Fernando (…) Me vi sumergido en otro tipo de lenguaje y de tiempo, en otra manera de sobrevivir y de vivir hasta la propia muerte. Conocí la villa hasta llegar a sufrirla. (Subrayado mío, 14)

Cristian Alarcón parte del suceso de la muerte del pibe chorro convertido en ídolo al que acuden los ladrones de la villa para pedir protección de las balas de los policías cuando salen a robar. Su muerte, como escribe el cronista: “corrió por las villas cercanas como sólo lo hacen las novedades trágicas” (27). El suceso o fait divers es, según Roland Barthes, una noticia inclasificable (no entra en las categorías reconocibles de política, economía, ciencias, etc.) y está constituido por una causa inexplicable que provoca asombro, “es el deshecho inorganizado de las noticias informes (…) en una palabra, es una información monstruosa análoga a todos los hechos excepcionales o insignificantes” (259). En la crónica el suceso se expande y es ficcionalizado, es decir, si bien el cronista narra lo que vio y lo que oyó en su estadía en la villa, aparece un modo de construcción de la historia tal como podría haber sucedido probable o necesariamente, según la definición que nos brinda Aristóteles en la Poética en relación a la diferenciación que hace entre historia y poesía. Es decir, hay una reestructuración de los hechos reales por parte del cronista, que los convierte en narración ficcional. Una marca de esta ficcionalización corresponde al cambio de nombre de los personajes para preservar su integridad, como lo expone el autor al comienzo del libro.

A su vez, Alarcón no enumera hechos ocurridos sino que busca deconstruir y construir la muerte del “Frente” Vital a partir de la narración de un territorio delimitado: la villa. En ese espacio, la vida de los protagonistas –nucleados en torno a la muerte del Frente- está construida en una trama en la que se mezcla la historia del fin de una época, la traición, desintegración familiar, engaños, enamoramiento, dolor, heroicidad, muerte, el secreto y el mito. Es decir, los condimentos propios del melodrama, como apuntó Alarcón en la respuesta a una entrevista cuando le preguntaron por la elección de la crónica:

Esto tiene que ver con haber encontrado una historia y unos personajes que me permitieron pelearme con mi barroco más propio y optar por contar una historia que tiene los ingredientes típicos de la villa: un texto melodramático y un subtexto político. En la villa, cuando alguien muere, muere porque fulano lo cagó con mengano, porque zutano lo engañó con perengana, porque a otro no le gustaba su cara, porque una vez habían peleado al salir de un baile. (Subrayado mío, 3)

El melodrama en América Latina, estudiado por números críticos, constituye una matriz cultural que puede leerse a partir de los folletines en el siglo XIX y XX y que luego transmigró a otros géneros como la novela popular, el radioteatro y el cine. Como sostiene Rossana Reguillo,

Esta forma de relato logró abolir la frontera entre lo real y lo representado. El melodrama se convirtió en escritura de lo real, en visión del mundo y en el abrevadero de las grandes verdades para amplios sectores de la población que interpretaron y fueron interpretados en la narrativa melodramática que más que un género se convirtió en matriz cultural (41)

En este sentido, la construcción de la figura mítica de “El Frente”, -incuso con sus matices-, su antítesis (El Tripa), la vida de los testigos, la trama y el territorio están sostenidas por el melodrama. Incluso esa matriz que no es sólo literaria sino cultural, es decir, forma parte constituyente de las culturas populares como anunció acertadamente Rossana Reguillo, está inscripta en el título de la crónica, “Cuando me muera quiero que me toquen cumbia”, corresponde a la letra de una canción de cumbia.

Por otro lado, Alarcón relata en el libro no sólo las experiencias de los testigos de la vida y muerte del Frente Vital sino que construye la versión otra, individualizada, de los documentos periodísticos y televisivos en relación al suceso. El asesinato que había sido televisado por Crónica Tv, cuyos telespectadores habían sido incluso sus propios amigos, y publicado como suceso periodístico en Página 12 dos años antes por el propio escritor es incorporado a la crónica a partir de una escena dramática, rasgo que comparte con la lógica espectacular de los medios de información, pero incorporada en el libro desde la mirada de la madre:

En el piso de tierra yacía Víctor, con la frente ancha y limpia que le dio sobrenombre, sobre un charco de sangre, bajo la mesa sobre la que escribían el parte oficial de su muerte. Sabina soltó un grito de dolor. Su llegada a la escena de los hechos había provocado un silencio alterado por los ruidos que hacía el helicóptero suspendido sobre el gentío. Ese alarido y el llanto que lo procedió fueron suficientes para quienes esperaban perdieran la esperanza: un policía había masacrado a Víctor Manuel “El Frente” Vital, el ladrón más popular en los suburbios del norte de Gran Buenos Aire. (26)

ALCALÁ LA REAL | Alfonso Ocon

Es decir, que Alarcón al escribir la voz y mirada de una madre frente al cuerpo con nombre de su hijo, individualiza, nombra y corporiza. Al respecto, Mónica Bernabé plantea que este mecanismo:

Constituye una operación política de fondo experimental: frente a la des–materialización del mundo, en particular, frente su simulacro televisivo que es repetición sin diferencia, Alarcón singulariza, identifica, nombra. Si Crónica TV exhibe cadáveres sin identidad, Alarcón restituye “la vida breve” que a cada uno le tocó en suerte (2010: 13).

A su vez, la decisión de elegir la crónica, que es también una operación política, está dada por la posibilidad que le brinda la forma de incorporar las voces de los testigos porque desde allí, el cronista crea un discurso sobre la vida en la villa diferente – o en tensión – con el propuesto por los medios masivos de información. Si éstos recogían la doxa de la clase media y media-alta que estigmatizaba a los chicos de la villa como “pibes chorros” antes de serlo, Alarcón realiza un corrimiento de esa opinión a partir de la narración de la violencia ejercida por la policía de la Provincia de Buenos Aires sobre los jóvenes de la villa, hecho que se manifiesta no sólo en el fusilamiento de Víctor Vital, sino también en otros episodios. Con la entrada de este factor clave dentro de las relaciones de la villa, lo que el escritor realiza es una configuración de un nuevo imaginario social y político, en donde el eje no pasa sólo por los delitos de los pibes chorros, sino por la corrupción y abuso de la autoridad de los policías.

Los Narcos latinoamericanos

7 años más tarde, Alarcón publica Si me querés, quereme transa, crónica que relata sobre la red de narcotráfico inscrita en Villa del Señor, y cuyos habitantes son inmigrantes procedentes, en su mayoría, de Perú. En el libro, la villa aparece incluida como el territorio – la escenografía- en donde la droga, el robo y el asesinato constituyen los protagonistas, al tiempo que se convierte en una geografía que empalma el vínculo de dos países. En esta crónica existen dos espectacularizaciones sobre la villa que se articulan mutuamente; por un lado, en relación al narcotráfico narrada a partir de las múltiples historias de sus protagonistas- pero nucleadas en torna a la figura de Alcira-, y en las cuales, al igual que en Cuando me muera quiero que me toquen cumbia, aparece la matriz melodramática: clanes que se pugnan por obtener el poder de la droga, las fiestas populares, la venganza, la tragedia, el amor y el odio; y por otro lado, aparece la espectacularización de la villa en relación a una nueva configuración de la ciudadanía que se establece en ese territorio.

En cuanto a la primera de las espectacularizaciones, la crónica mezcla, al igual que en su anterior libro, la matriz melodramática, el policial, la lógica espectacular de los medios de información y los expedientes judiciales. El melodrama se ve, por ejemplo, en esta escena donde el escritor narra su experiencia en relación a las entrevistas con los personajes: “Escuchar a la muerte se vuelve una señal sorda que pasa de fondo como acolchada por el sinfín de acontecimientos más melodramáticos. Las peleas sentimentales de Alcira con sus hombres podían desatar el recuerdo más espectral” (135).

A su vez, el cronista enuncia dentro de la propia narración el vínculo entre ficción y realidad, propio de la crónica, pero para considerarlo elemento constituyente de la vida de los protagonistas y de la escritura de los documentos judiciales. Por ejemplo, en relación al primero dice:

La construcción de una figura de poder dentro de un territorio suele tomar prestado lo que necesita de la ficción, hasta para convertir una biografía imposible en un relato oral que se vale por sí mismo, capaz de ser verosímil y de perdurar. La leyenda no sólo se construye con la exageración y la mentira, sino también con ciertos tópicos como la compasión del líder ante las miserias de sus dominados (…) (89-90)

Es decir, desde que el cronista declara la utilización de ficción en la construcción de una vida o en los relatos que se hallan depositados en los papeles judiciales, establece una nueva relación entre verdad y ficción: “en mi ética, la mayor virtud está en la verdad. La verdad está lejos de las comisarías y de los tribunales. La verdad está sólo en la calle” (118). En este sentido, surge el interrogante acerca de los límites rígidos entre ficción/ verdad, interrogante que, tal vez, espera ser respondido por la crítica académica y literaria contemporánea.

Vuelvo al libro. En cuanto a la utilización de la lógica espectacular basada en el dramatismo de las imágenes, Alarcón describe escenas de asesinatos, violencia y tiroteos a partir de ese procedimiento narrativo, por ejemplo:

De un solo escopetazo Jerry le voló el gorro de visera. La sangre salpicó la campera de cuero negra. Le estalló la cabeza. Había sesos de Valdivia en la pares. Se veía en los flashazos de los disparos. Eso fue lo que quedó en la memoria de la gente; los pasamontañas, y esa forma de matar tan espectacular que no se había visto antes en Villa del Señor (73)

Por otra parte, en relación al segundo aspecto de la espectacularización, el escritor narra una configuración de la ciudadanía dentro de la villa, que ya no es solamente argentina sino latinoamericana. Villa del Señor comenzó a poblarse en los años ´50 por inmigrantes peruanos, paraguayos y bolivianos, y actualmente, producto del crecimiento territorial y demográfico, ciudadanos argentinos también forman parte de ella. En este sentido, no sólo la droga es el enlace de estas comunidades sino que las costumbres, códigos y fiestas comienzan a matizarse paulatinamente, produciendo una ciudadanía latinoamericano, es decir, ya no una propiamente definida por los límites nacionales. Ciudadanía presente, también, en los años 90 en, por ejemplo, La máquina de hacer paraguayitos de Washington Cucurto. En el caso de la crónica es interesante ver que inclusive el propio cronista es chileno y se introduce en una villa argentina compuesta por inmigrantes paraguayos, bolivianos y peruanos y cuya escritura atañe no sólo a la literatura nacional sino latinoamericana. De esto se desprende, como conclusión inconclusa, un nuevo problema o una posibilidad de volver a pensar la literatura argentina en relación a los desplazamientos que se producen en el interior de ella, no sólo en cuanto a las temáticas sino en cuanto a sus límites. Aunque sea para mí una incertidumbre actual saber el lugar que puedan llegar a tener estas crónicas dentro de la historia literaria argentina, lo que sí estoy segura es que podemos empezar a delinear es un nuevo campo literario nacional en donde la crónica ocupa un espacio importante.


Referencias bibliográficas

CORPUS

– Alarcón, C. Cuando me muera quiero que me toquen cumbia. Vidas de pibes chorros; Buenos Aires: Editorial Verticales de bolsillo, 2003

– —————–(2010) Si me querés, quereme transa; Buenos Aires: Editorial Aguilar, 2012

TEORIA Y CRÍTICA LITERARIAS

– Aguilar, G: “La representación de la villa en el cine” y “Algunas películas recientes sobre las villas miserias” en Informe Escaleno. Dossier Villa, Sociedad y Cultura, junio, 2013. Disponible online en http://www.informeescaleno.com.ar/index.php?s=articulos&id=52

– Alarcón, C.: “La novela de los pibes chorros”. Entrevista realizada 2 de noviembre de 2003. Diario Los Andes, Mendoza. Disponible online en http://www.losandes.com.ar/notas/2003/11/2/cultura-89647.asp

– Bernabé, M. “Prólogo”. Idea Crónica. Literatura de no ficción iberoamericana. María Sonia Cristoff, (Comp.). Rosario: Beatriz Viterbo Editora, 2006.

– —————- “Sobre márgenes, crónica y mercancía” en www.celarg.org 2010

– Debord, G (1967). La sociedad del espectáculo. Champ Libre, traducción de Maldeojo para el Archivo Situacionista Hispano, 1998

– Gorelik, A. Miradas sobre Buenos Aires. Historia cultural y crítica urbana. Buenos Aires: Siglo XXI Editores, 2004

– Martín-Barbero, J. Oficios de cartógrafo. Travesías latinoamericanas de la comunicación en la cultura. México: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2002

– …………….De los medios a las mediaciones. Comunicación, cultura y hegemonía; México: Ediciones Gili, 1987

– Reguillo, R. “Textos fronterizos. La crónica una escritura a la intemperie” en Tras las huellas de una escritura en tránsito. La crónica contemporánea en América Latina. Ed. Graciela Falbo, Buenos Aires: Ediciones Al margen, 2007.

– Saítta, S.: “La narración en la pobreza en el siglo veinte” en Revista Nuestra América, N°2, Agosto-Diciembre 2002, págs.89-102.

– Saraví, G. (ed.): De la pobreza a la exclusión. Continuidades y rupturas de la cuestión social en América Latina. Buenos Aires: Prometeo Libros, 2006

– Sarlo, B.: La ciudad vista; Mercancías y cultura urbana. Buenos Aires: Siglo XXI, 2009

– Wortman, A.: Construcción imaginaria de la desigualdad social. Buenos Aires: CLACSO, Consejo Latinoamericano de Ciencias Sociales, 2007

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